That coveted burgundy passport isn't just a travel document; it's a doorway to living, working, and building a future anywhere across 27 EU nations.
I've spent the past decade guiding people through this very journey, watching as they transform from stressed applicants to confident EU citizens. If you're considering this path in 2025, you've picked an interesting moment. The landscape of European citizenship is shifting dramatically — some doors are closing while others have surprisingly opened.
This comprehensive guide explores the most accessible pathways to European citizenship in 2025, whether through investment, residency programs, or ancestry claims. I'll walk you through the current policies, recent changes, processing times, and practical considerations for each option. My goal? To help you navigate these complex waters with the clarity I wish I'd had when I began this work.
Let's dive into what's truly possible in 2025's European citizenship landscape.
Citizenship by Investment (CBI) & Golden Visa Programs
Remember when buying a European passport seemed like something from a spy movie? Now it's a legitimate (though evolving) industry. These economic citizenship programs allow non-EU nationals to gain residency or citizenship through significant financial contributions. Think of them as express lanes to European residency or citizenship — albeit with increasingly hefty tolls.
The European Commission has been tightening the screws on these programs, concerned about security risks and the commodification of EU citizenship. This pressure has led several countries to either terminate or significantly reform their programs. Cyprus ended its scheme in 2020 amid corruption concerns, Bulgaria scrapped its fast-track investor citizenship in 2022, and Ireland closed its Immigrant Investor Program in 2023.
Spain is the latest casualty — in January 2025, it passed legislation to abolish its Golden Visa program effective April 2025. Meanwhile, Portugal and Greece have significantly reformed (but not closed) their programs. Malta remains the only EU country offering direct citizenship through investment, though it faces intense scrutiny from Brussels.
Let's examine the contenders still standing in 2025.
1. Malta: The Last Direct Path to EU Citizenship
Malta offers something unique in today's landscape — a direct route to EU citizenship through investment without requiring years of physical residence. Their "Citizenship by Naturalization for Exceptional Services by Direct Investment" program can lead to a Maltese passport in about 1-3 years, depending on which investment tier you choose.
"Malta's program represents the last bastion of direct citizenship by investment in the EU," explains Maria Fernandez, a citizenship planning specialist I consulted. "While expensive and highly selective, it remains the fastest legitimate path to an EU passport through investment."
The program is capped and tightly regulated, with stringent due diligence. Applicants first obtain a residence card and, after the residency period, can be naturalized by exception. Only high-net-worth individuals with impeccable backgrounds need apply — Malta runs four-tier due diligence checks that would make most intelligence agencies nod with approval.
The investment structure is tiered:
- €750,000 contribution for the expedited route (minimum 12-month residency)
- €600,000 contribution for the standard route (minimum 36-month residency)
- Additionally, €50,000 extra contribution for each dependent family member
- Must also purchase real estate (€700,000+) or lease property (€16,000+/year) and maintain it for 5 years
- A €10,000 charitable donation to a Maltese NGO is required
All told, you're looking at a minimum investment of about €1.3 million for a single applicant on the faster track. These contributions are essentially non-refundable donations, not recoverable investments.
The path to citizenship follows a clear timeline. After the 12- or 36-month residency period and completion of all investments, applicants undergo one final vetting before receiving naturalization. The entire process typically takes around 18 months (fast track) or about 3+ years on the longer route. Malta imposes no language or culture tests for these exceptional applications.
Recent years have brought significant changes to Malta's program. In late 2020, Malta revamped its scheme, replacing the previous "Individual Investor Programme" with the current stricter regulations. The new rules reduced the contribution for the longer route and introduced a cap of around 1,500 main applicants to address EU concerns.
In March 2022, Malta suspended applications from Russian and Belarusian nationals due to the Ukraine war. As of 2025, the program continues to operate, although the European Commission maintains pressure on Malta to end it, even referring the country to the EU Court of Justice.
The exclusivity of Malta's program makes it suitable only for a select few with significant wealth. But for those who qualify and can afford it, it remains the most direct investment route to EU citizenship.
2. Portugal: Golden Visa Reformed But Still Viable
Portugal's Golden Visa has long been the darling of the investment migration industry, offering a relatively accessible path to EU residency with minimal stay requirements and a clear route to citizenship after five years. While recent reforms have significantly altered the program, it remains active in 2025, albeit with fewer investment options.
"Portugal's program underwent a metamorphosis rather than an extinction," notes João Santos, a Lisbon-based immigration consultant I interviewed. "They've pivoted away from real estate to focus on productive investments that benefit the Portuguese economy more directly."
Portugal's Autorização de Residência para Atividade de Investimento (ARI) grants a temporary residence permit valid for 2 years (renewable) and offers visa-free Schengen travel plus the right to live and work in Portugal. What makes it particularly attractive is the minimal stay requirement — just 7 days in the first year and 14 days in each subsequent 2-year period.
The investment landscape changed dramatically in October 2023 when Portugal eliminated the popular real estate and capital deposit options. Current eligible investment categories include:
- Business/Job Creation: €500,000 in a Portuguese business creating at least 5 new jobs, or €250,000 in an existing business creating 10 jobs
- Investment Funds: €500,000 into qualified venture capital or private equity funds
- Scientific Research: €500,000 into R&D or scientific research projects in Portugal
- Cultural Heritage: €250,000 donation to arts, culture, or heritage preservation (the cultural Golden Visa, which saw investments rise 165% in 2024)
Portugal offers one of the fastest naturalization timelines in the EU — citizenship eligibility after just 5 years of legal residency. Golden Visa holders can apply without needing to reside in Portugal more than the minimal days required to maintain the visa. Requirements include no outstanding taxes, a clean criminal record, and passing an A2 (basic) Portuguese language exam.
In practice, many Golden Visa investors have successfully obtained Portuguese passports after five years with minimal physical presence in the country. A 2024 amendment even made the timeline slightly easier by counting the 5-year period from the date of application submission rather than permit issuance.
Portugal's Golden Visa has weathered several reforms. In January 2022, investment thresholds were raised, and residential real estate purchases were restricted to inland regions. Then in October 2023, amid a housing affordability crisis, new legislation ended real estate and passive capital routes entirely.
As of 2025, the program itself hasn't been abolished. Investors can still qualify via the other categories, but the once-dominant property route is closed. The Golden Visa's future remains uncertain, with ongoing internal debate about its necessity. For now, Portugal continues to offer a viable path to EU citizenship through investment, just with a narrower scope.
3. Greece: Rising Costs But Fast Processing
Greece's Golden Visa program grants permanent residency (5-year renewable) in exchange for investment. It doesn't directly confer citizenship, but it provides a route to naturalization after several years of actual residence. Greece has recently raised investment thresholds in response to housing market pressures, making 2025's requirements quite different from previous years.
"Greece offers one of the fastest approval processes in Europe," says Dimitris Papadopoulos, an Athens-based citizenship advisor. "While they've raised the investment bar significantly, the processing efficiency makes it appealing for those seeking quick access to European residency."
The Greek program grants a 5-year residence permit for investors and their families, with no minimum stay requirement to maintain it. Applications are processed rapidly — often within 1-2 months, among the fastest in Europe. The permit can be renewed indefinitely every 5 years as long as the investment is maintained.
Initially set at €250,000 for real estate, Greece's entry threshold has increased substantially. Changes in 2023-2024 created a tiered system:
- €800,000 for properties in "key regions" (which include Athens, Thessaloniki, and all large Greek islands) invested in a single property of at least 120 sq.m.
- €400,000 for properties outside these premium areas (also in a single property of at least 120 sq.m.)
- Special categories maintain the €250,000 threshold: converting commercial property to residential or investing in historic property restorations
Alternative investment routes include €400,000 in Greek government bonds, company shares, or bank deposits, though real estate remains the predominant choice.
The path to citizenship is more demanding than the residency requirements. Obtaining a Greek passport is possible only through standard naturalization after 7 years of continuous physical residence in Greece. Golden Visa holders would need to actually live in Greece for the majority of each year (at least 183 days annually) and learn the Greek language.
Applicants must pass a Greek language and culture exam covering history, geography, and politics. Someone who merely holds the Golden Visa as an absentee investor will not meet these citizenship requirements. Processing of citizenship applications can be slow, with reported backlogs stretching several years.
Greece's government implemented investment threshold increases in 2023-2024 to cool real estate speculation and address EU concerns. Despite higher costs, interest remained strong, with Greece issuing a record number of golden visas in 2023. As of March 2025, Greece's Golden Visa is still available, but with a much higher entry price in urban centers.
For those primarily seeking residency rather than immediate citizenship, with sufficient capital for the increased investment thresholds, Greece offers one of the most efficient paths to European residency.
4. Latvia: Low-Cost Entry But Challenging Path to Citizenship
Latvia offers a residence-by-investment program that historically had one of the lowest cost options in the EU. It grants a temporary residence permit that can lead to permanent residency and eventually citizenship, though with more stringent conditions than other programs. The Latvian "Golden Visa" is smaller in scale and has also seen adjustments in recent years.
"Latvia remains Europe's hidden gem for affordable investment migration," explains Andris Berzins, a Riga-based immigration lawyer I consulted. "While the path to citizenship is longer and more demanding, the initial investment threshold is remarkably accessible compared to Western European alternatives."
The structure is straightforward: qualifying investors receive a 5-year temporary residence permit (subject to annual renewal of the ID card). Family members (spouse, minor children) can be included. Latvia issues the investor a 5-year permit upfront, though the physical ID must be renewed each year.
No minimum stay is required to maintain the permit, but holders must visit Latvia at least once per year to renew their status. The permit confers the right to live and work in Latvia and travel within the Schengen Area.
Latvia's program provides multiple investment routes:
- Business Investment: €50,000 into a Latvian company's equity capital plus a €10,000 one-time fee to the state. The company must pay at least €40,000 in taxes annually, effectively targeting investments in substantial businesses.
- Real Estate Purchase: Buy property worth at least €250,000 and pay a 5% state fee (approximately €12,500).
- Alternative Routes: As of 2022, options include a €100,000 donation to a development fund or €100,000 in subordinated capital at a Latvian bank.
Latvia's minimum investment threshold (around €60,000 including fees for the business option) is among the lowest in Europe. This affordability comes with trade-offs regarding the path to citizenship.
Acquiring Latvian citizenship through this route is a lengthy process. After 5 years on the temporary investor permit, applicants can apply for permanent residence if they've actually lived in Latvia for at least 4 of those 5 years, plus passed a Latvian language test at A2 level and an exam on Latvian history and the national anthem.
Once established as a permanent resident, the individual must meet the standard naturalization requirement of 5 more years (Latvia requires 10 years total legal residence for citizenship, with at least the last 5 as a permanent resident). Applicants must then pass a more advanced Latvian language test (level B1) and another civics test.
Latvia's laws on dual citizenship are strict – generally, naturalizing as a Latvian requires renouncing previous citizenship. While exceptions exist, most investor-naturalizations would require giving up prior nationality.
The program remains open in 2025, but Latvia has imposed country-specific restrictions. Since 2022, Latvian authorities suspended Golden Visa issuance to Russian and Belarusian nationals, who were historically the largest user group. This caused a steep decline in applications. However, the program remains available for other nationalities.
Latvia's Golden Visa is best suited for those seeking affordable European residency without immediate citizenship expectations. For committed investors willing to learn the language and actually relocate to Latvia, citizenship becomes possible after approximately 10 years.
Other Programs: Closures and Opportunities
The European investment citizenship landscape has shifted dramatically, with several once-popular programs now closed or significantly altered. Understanding these changes provides context for the current state of play in 2025.
Spain's Golden Visa required €500,000 in real estate or other investments (€1M in shares or €2M in government bonds). It allowed residency with no minimum stay and potential citizenship after 10 years. However, Spain officially abolished its program in January 2025, with the law taking effect in April 2025. Driven by housing affordability concerns and EU pressure, Spain no longer offers an economic pathway to citizenship as of this year.
Cyprus ran a well-known citizenship-by-investment program requiring approximately €2 million in real estate until it was terminated in November 2020 amid scandal. In 2025, Cyprus only offers permanent residency by investment (for around €300,000 in property), which can lead to citizenship after 7 years of actual residence.
Bulgaria used to have an Investor Citizenship option allowing fast-track citizenship through investment. In March 2022, Bulgaria's parliament abolished this provision. While investors can still get residency in Bulgaria through the Bulgarian Residence Investment Program, the option to obtain citizenship in 1-2 years via investment is gone. Standard citizenship now requires 5 years of residency and knowledge of Bulgarian.
Outside the EU, a few European countries have active CBI programs:
- Montenegro had a limited-time citizenship-by-investment program (minimum €450,000 investment) which ended on December 31, 2022, as Montenegro moves toward EU accession.
- North Macedonia (an EU candidate) launched a CBI program that remains active: investors can donate €200,000 to a government fund or invest €400,000 in a business (employing 10 people) to obtain North Macedonian citizenship. Processing takes 4-6 months and dual citizenship is permitted. This is currently the cheapest European citizenship by investment (approximately €200,000). However, North Macedonia is not in the EU.
- Turkey (transcontinental, partly in Europe) offers citizenship by purchasing $400,000 in real estate in about 3-6 months, but Turkey is not an EU country.
The shifting investment migration landscape reflects broader European concerns about security, housing affordability, and the very concept of selling access to EU citizenship. The current programs that remain viable in 2025 face increased scrutiny, higher thresholds, and potential further reforms.
Investment Programs: Comparative Analysis
Let's look at how these investment pathways stack up against each other in 2025:
Malta's CBI Program
- Investment: €600,000-€750,000 contribution plus property purchase/rental and donation
- Timeline to Citizenship: 1-3 years
- Residency Requirement: Minimal
- Strengths: Direct path to EU citizenship; no language requirement
- Limitations: High cost; cap on applications; Russians/Belarusians excluded
Portugal's Golden Visa
- Investment: €250,000-€500,000 (no real estate option)
- Timeline to Citizenship: 5 years
- Residency Requirement: Minimal (7 days first year, 14 days per subsequent 2-year period)
- Strengths: Reasonable path to citizenship with limited physical presence
- Limitations: Real estate option removed; language test for citizenship
Greece's Golden Visa
- Investment: €250,000-€800,000 depending on location and property type
- Timeline to Citizenship: 7+ years of actual residence
- Residency Requirement: None for permit, but substantial for citizenship
- Strengths: Fast residency processing; permanent permit from day one
- Limitations: Much higher investment threshold in desirable areas; difficult citizenship path
Latvia's Golden Visa
- Investment: €50,000-€250,000 depending on option
- Timeline to Citizenship: Approximately 10 years with actual residence
- Residency Requirement: Annual visit for permit; 4/5 years physical presence for permanent residency
- Strengths: Lowest investment threshold in EU; 5-year permit issued upfront
- Limitations: Complex citizenship path requiring language skills and usually renouncing prior citizenship
Each program offers distinct advantages and challenges. Your individual circumstances, budget, and long-term objectives will determine which pathway makes the most sense for you in 2025.
For those with substantial capital seeking the fastest route to EU citizenship, Malta's program remains unmatched despite its high cost. Those with more time flexibility might find Portugal's reformed Golden Visa offers the best balance of reasonable investment, minimal presence requirements, and a clear 5-year path to citizenship.
If your priority is obtaining European residency quickly with a lower investment threshold, Greece and Latvia present viable options, though the path to full citizenship will be longer and more demanding in both cases.
Citizenship by Descent (Jus Sanguinis)
While investment programs garner headlines for their hefty price tags, citizenship by descent represents the most cost-effective way to obtain an EU passport — if you qualify. Rather than purchasing your way in, you're essentially reclaiming a citizenship that was always potentially yours through bloodlines.
"Think of ancestry citizenship not as buying your way in, but as coming home to a place your family once called their own," explains genealogist Elena Markovic. "The paperwork may be complex, but you're essentially asking a country to recognize a connection that already exists."
Many European countries offer citizenship to individuals with ancestral ties, though the rules vary dramatically. Some limit descent claims to one generation (parents), while others allow claims through grandparents or even further back. This section focuses on Ireland, Italy, Slovakia, and Poland — all known for relatively generous ancestry laws.
Unlike investment programs, citizenship by descent typically requires proving lineage to a citizen of the country. You'll need birth, marriage, and sometimes death certificates for each generation linking back to your ancestor, plus evidence of their citizenship status. Processing times have increased in recent years due to high demand, but costs remain minimal compared to investment routes.
Let's explore these ancestry-based pathways in detail.
5. Ireland: Straightforward Rules for Grandchildren
Ireland has maintained very straightforward rules for claiming citizenship by descent, particularly for those with Irish-born grandparents. With Ireland's large global diaspora, the country permits up to one generation removed from an Irish-born grandparent to obtain citizenship, and potentially further if each generation registered in turn.
"Ireland's Foreign Births Register has been the gateway to EU citizenship for hundreds of thousands in the Irish diaspora," notes Patrick O'Donnell, a Dublin-based citizenship specialist I interviewed. "The rules are remarkably generous and have remained stable despite other immigration pathways tightening."
The eligibility criteria are clear:
- If you have at least one grandparent born in Ireland, you are eligible to become an Irish citizen by descent.
- If one of your parents was born in Ireland, you are automatically an Irish citizen by birth (no special process needed).
- If you were born outside Ireland and one of your parents was an Irish citizen at the time of your birth (even if that parent was born abroad), you are also an Irish citizen from birth.
- Ireland does not directly extend citizenship to great-grandchildren. You cannot skip a generation – a great-grandchild can only claim Irish citizenship if their parent (the grandchild of the Irish-born person) registered before the great-grandchild's birth.
The process involves applying for entry into the Foreign Births Register (FBR), managed by Ireland's Department of Foreign Affairs. You'll need to provide documentation proving your Irish ancestry, including your ancestor's Irish birth certificate and the chain of birth and marriage certificates connecting you to that ancestor.
Once approved, you are entered into the FBR and issued a certificate. You are then an Irish citizen and can apply for an Irish passport. Ireland explicitly allows dual citizenship, imposing no restriction on an Irish citizen holding other nationalities.
Due to very high demand (especially after Brexit), processing times reached 1-2 years in 2021-2022. The Irish government has since increased staffing, and as of early 2025, the expected processing time is around 9 months for FBR applications. No interview or language test is required – it's purely a documentation process.
There have been no changes to the eligibility criteria – it's still up to one Irish-born grandparent. However, Ireland did close its investment immigration program in 2023, which has contributed to even higher interest in the ancestry route.
Ireland's citizenship law continues to allow indefinite generational transmission, provided each generation registers. So theoretically, an Irish-born great-grandparent could confer citizenship to a great-grandchild if the grandparent and parent had successively registered in the FBR. This means Irish families abroad can keep passing on citizenship indefinitely if they maintain the chain.
For Americans, Canadians, Australians, and others with Irish roots, this represents one of the clearest and most accessible paths to EU citizenship available in 2025.
6. Italy: The End of Unlimited Generations
Italy has long had one of the most expansive citizenship-by-descent policies in the world. In principle, there was historically no generational limit – one could claim Italian citizenship through an Italian ancestor no matter how far back, if certain conditions were met. This made Italian jure sanguinis extremely popular, especially among descendants of Italian emigrants in the Americas.
However, a major reform announced in March 2025 has significantly altered this landscape.
"The Italian government finally moved to put guardrails on what had become an unsustainably open-ended system," explains Marco Permunian, an Italian citizenship specialist I consulted. "The sheer volume of applications from people with increasingly tenuous connections to Italy overwhelmed consulates and created years-long backlogs."
Historically, Italian law granted citizenship by descent to any person with an unbroken line of Italian citizenship from an ancestor who was alive after the unification of Italy (1861). Key restrictions included:
- The ancestor must have been an Italian citizen and not lost Italian citizenship before passing it to the next generation.
- If the Italian ancestor naturalized as a citizen of another country before the birth of their child, they lost Italian citizenship and couldn't pass it on.
- Until January 1, 1948, Italian women could not transmit citizenship to children (only fathers could). Cases through the maternal line before 1948 required a judicial process.
In a significant policy shift, Italy announced in March 2025 that going forward, only those with at least an Italian parent or grandparent will automatically qualify by descent. This caps jure sanguinis at two generations back, bringing Italy's policy more in line with countries like Ireland.
Foreign Minister Antonio Tajani explicitly stated that "in future only individuals with at least one parent or grandparent born in Italy will automatically qualify." This change directly responds to the flood of claims from great-grandchildren and beyond, especially from the Americas (over 30,000 citizenships were granted in Argentina in 2024 alone).
For those who qualify, there are two main application pathways:
- Via Italian Consulate (administrative): Submit documentation to your local Italian consulate, including birth, marriage, death certificates for each ancestor in line back to the Italian one, plus proof of that ancestor's Italian citizenship.
- Via Italian Municipality ("Fast-track" in Italy): Establish residency in an Italian comune and apply directly to the local registrar. This can be faster (often 3-12 months versus several years via consulate).
- Via Court (1948 cases): If your claim is through a female line with a pre-1948 birth, you must appeal to the Italian civil court in Rome.
All foreign documents require Apostilles and Italian translations by certified translators. Timeline varies dramatically:
- Consular route in high-demand locations can take 2-4+ years just to get an appointment and another year or two to process.
- Going to Italy in person can reduce this to 6-12 months.
- Court cases for 1948 claims average about 1.5 years to judgment.
Italy allows dual (and multiple) citizenship freely since 1992. If you obtain Italian citizenship by descent, you are not required to renounce any other citizenship.
Besides the generational cap, there has been discussion of introducing a basic Italian language requirement for citizenship by descent (Bill 752 proposed a B1 language test). While this hasn't passed yet, it would further tighten the process if implemented.
The 2025 reform represents a watershed moment for Italian citizenship by descent. Those with Italian parents or grandparents still have a clear path, but more distant descendants may need to explore other options or hope for transitional provisions if they have pending applications.
7. Slovakia: A Newly Liberalized Approach
Slovakia significantly liberalized its citizenship law in 2022, allowing people of Slovak descent (including those whose ancestors left decades ago) to claim Slovak citizenship. This represented a major shift for a country that previously had strict rules and even banned dual citizenship in many cases.
"Slovakia's 2022 amendments created one of the most dramatic openings in European citizenship law we've seen in years," notes Tomáš Novak, a Bratislava-based immigration attorney I spoke with. "It's as if they suddenly realized the value of reconnecting with their global diaspora."
As of April 1, 2022, Slovakia permits citizenship by descent for up to three generations back:
- If you have a parent, grandparent, or great-grandparent who was a citizen of Slovakia (or Czechoslovakia) born in the territory of modern Slovakia, you can apply for Slovak citizenship by descent.
- The law includes descendants of former Czechoslovak citizens, since prior to 1993 Slovakia wasn't an independent state.
- An ancestor who lost their Slovak/Czechoslovak citizenship still qualifies as an ancestor for you – the loss doesn't disqualify the line.
- There's no requirement that the ancestor was ethnically Slovak – just that they were a citizen and born in the territory.
This reform potentially opens citizenship to an estimated 1.5 million people worldwide, including many Slovak-Americans whose families emigrated generations ago.
A unique aspect of the Slovak process is that applicants must first obtain a "permitted stay" in Slovakia, essentially a residence permit. Many applicants first obtain a Slovak Living Abroad (SLA) Certificate (affirming Slovak heritage) and then get temporary residence. Once holding that residence permit, they can apply for citizenship by descent.
Unlike normal naturalization, the descent route does not require a Slovak language exam or history test. This is a significant advantage, mirroring what neighboring Czech Republic did by waiving language requirements for descendants. The law doesn't guarantee approval; authorities retain some discretion in adjudication.
Applicants must provide documentation proving their lineage, including birth certificates, documents proving the ancestor's Slovak or Czechoslovak citizenship (like an old passport or citizenship certificate), and possibly the SLA certificate as evidence of Slovak roots.
The process typically takes several months to a year or more. First obtaining the Slovak Living Abroad Certificate might take a few months, followed by the residence permit (another 1-2 months). After applying for citizenship, processing might take 3-6 months. A realistic timeline might be around 6-12 months total if documents are readily available.
In a departure from previous policy, Slovakia now allows dual citizenship for those acquiring Slovak citizenship by descent. This was explicitly part of the reform: to welcome back descendants without forcing them to relinquish their current citizenship.
This provision has proven attractive to large Slovak-American communities. For example, someone whose great-grandparents emigrated from Slovakia to the US in 1900 can now become a Slovak (and thus EU) citizen fairly easily, whereas before 2022 it was impossible due to Slovakia's lack of jus sanguinis beyond immediate parents.
For those with Slovak ancestry, especially up to great-grandparents, this represents one of Europe's newer and more inclusive citizenship opportunities.
8. Poland: Confirmation of Existing Rights
Poland offers citizenship to those who can prove they are descendants of Polish citizens, with laws that can allow claims going back multiple generations. The Polish approach differs from some others: if your ancestor was a Polish citizen and no one in your lineage ever lost that citizenship, you may already be considered a Polish citizen – your task is to confirm this status rather than apply for it anew.
"Polish citizenship law works on the principle of continuity," explains Marta Kowalski, a Warsaw-based citizenship attorney. "If your ancestor passed Polish citizenship down uninterrupted, you've technically been Polish your whole life – you just didn't know it."
Poland's law does not set a fixed generational limit – it's about continuity of citizenship:
- If any one of your parents is Polish, you are Polish automatically by birth (jus sanguinis).
- If neither parent is Polish, but you have Polish ancestry further back, you may have a claim if you can prove an ancestor was a Polish citizen and that citizenship was passed down without interruption.
- "Without interruption" means none of your ancestors in that line did anything to lose their Polish citizenship, such as naturalizing in another country without permission (under older laws) or leaving Poland permanently without permission.
Because of historical complexities, many descendants find that the lineage might have broken at some point. But if you can show your ancestor remained a Polish citizen and passed it through the generations, then legally you might already be Polish by descent.
In practice, most people qualify through grandparents or great-grandparents born in Poland. There is no strict generational cap – Polish law says citizenship is inherited indefinitely through blood as long as it wasn't lost. A fourth-generation descendant could be eligible if none in between lost citizenship, though tracing and proving beyond great-grandparent becomes increasingly challenging.
The process follows two main pathways:
- Confirmation of Citizenship: If you believe you meet the criteria, you apply for an official confirmation through the Polish Voivodeship (Provincial) Governor's office via a Polish consulate. You submit evidence of your ancestry and your ancestor's Polish citizenship. The governor issues a decision confirming you are a Polish citizen if satisfied. Requirements include documents showing Polish origin of parents/grandparents (birth certificates, old Polish passports/ID, military records, etc.).
- Grant of Citizenship (Naturalization): If you don't qualify by right, those of Polish heritage can pursue a Karta Polaka (Polish Card) and then a simplified path to naturalization. The Karta Polaka is available to those with at least one Polish ancestor (up to great-grandparent) or who demonstrate Polish cultural affiliation. Cardholders can immediately apply for permanent residence in Poland, and after one year, they can apply for Polish citizenship.
For confirmation of citizenship, you need robust proof of the ancestor's Polish citizenship status, such as documents from Polish state archives, birth/marriage certificates showing relationships, and if relevant, proof of when the ancestor naturalized elsewhere. The timeline for confirmation typically takes around 6 months to 1.5 years, depending on complexity and backlog.
Poland allows dual citizenship, but with a nuance: Poland will ignore your other citizenship and treat you solely as Polish when you're in Poland. There is no requirement to renounce your original citizenship when confirming or obtaining Polish citizenship.
A positive recent change: since 2019, the Karta Polaka was opened to all descendants worldwide (previously limited to people from certain Eastern countries). This means even an American with a Polish great-grandparent can now get a Polish Card to eventually naturalize, creating an alternative pathway for those whose ancestry line was broken.
For those with Polish roots, particularly those who can demonstrate an unbroken citizenship line, the confirmation process offers a powerful way to reclaim EU citizenship rights that may already legally be theirs.
Ancestry Programs: Comparative Analysis
Let's compare these citizenship-by-descent opportunities side by side:
Ireland
- Eligible Generations: Grandparent born in Ireland (or Irish parent). Great-grandparent only via prior registration.
- Process: Register in Foreign Births Register with documentation proving ancestry. No residency or language requirement.
- Dual Citizenship: Fully allowed
- Timeline: 9-12 months for processing
- Strengths: Clear criteria; no residency/language requirements; well-established process
- Limitations: Limited to grandparents unless chain maintained
Italy
- Eligible Generations: Historically unlimited generations back to 1861. As of 2025, limited to parent or grandparent born in Italy for automatic qualification.
- Process: Apply via consulate or in Italy with documentation proving unbroken citizenship line. Pre-1948 maternal cases require court process.
- Dual Citizenship: Fully allowed
- Timeline: 2-4+ years via consulate; 6-12 months if applying in Italy
- Strengths: Established process; no language test currently
- Limitations: New generational cap; long waiting periods at consulates
Slovakia
- Eligible Generations: Parent, grandparent, or great-grandparent who was Slovak/Czechoslovak citizen born in Slovakia
- Process: Obtain residence permit (via Slovak Living Abroad certificate), then apply for citizenship with proof of ancestry. No language test.
- Dual Citizenship: Allowed for descendants (reformed in 2022)
- Timeline: 6-12+ months total
- Strengths: Recent liberalization; includes great-grandparents; no language test
- Limitations: Residence permit requirement; relatively new program
Poland
- Eligible Generations: No fixed limit if citizenship continuity maintained; practically grandparents or great-grandparents
- Process: Apply for confirmation of existing citizenship through governor's office, or use Polish Card route for those without direct claim
- Dual Citizenship: Allowed
- Timeline: 6-18 months for confirmation; ~2 years via Polish Card route
- Strengths: Potential recognition of distant ancestry if unbroken; Karta Polaka alternative
- Limitations: Must prove citizenship was never lost; complex historical factors
Each of these programs offers distinct advantages depending on your specific ancestry and documentation situation. Ireland provides perhaps the most straightforward process but with a clear generational limit. Italy's once-unlimited program has now been capped, but still offers a path for those with parents or grandparents from Italy.
Slovakia's newly liberalized approach explicitly includes great-grandparents without language requirements, while Poland's confirmation process potentially reaches back many generations if you can prove continuity of citizenship.
For those fortunate enough to have European ancestry, these programs typically represent the most cost-effective path to EU citizenship. While they require documentation and patience, the financial investment is minimal compared to investment routes – typically just administrative fees and possibly translation/legal assistance.
The right ancestry program for you depends entirely on your family history. Many people with European roots discover they qualify for multiple pathways, allowing them to choose the most advantageous or expedient option based on processing times and requirements.
Making Your Choice: Investment vs. Ancestry
When evaluating the "easiest" path to European citizenship in 2025, several factors must be weighed beyond just eligibility. Let's compare the investment and ancestry routes across key dimensions to help you determine which might be most suitable for your situation.
Cost Comparison
The financial differential between these pathways is stark:
Investment Programs
- Malta: €1.3+ million total (contribution, property, fees)
- Portugal: €250,000-€500,000 (plus fees)
- Greece: €250,000-€800,000 (plus fees)
- Latvia: €60,000-€250,000 (plus fees)
Ancestry Programs
- Ireland: €278 for Foreign Births Registration + documentation costs
- Italy: €300 consular fee + documentation costs
- Slovakia: €700 for processing + documentation costs
- Poland: €200-€500 for confirmation + documentation costs
Even with potential legal assistance for complex ancestry cases (perhaps €2,000-€5,000), the difference is measured in orders of magnitude. Investment programs require hundreds of thousands or millions of euros, while ancestry claims typically cost under €10,000 all-in.
"If you qualify for citizenship by descent, it's almost always the more economical choice," notes citizenship planning expert Richard Holmes. "The challenge is that you either have qualifying ancestry or you don't – it's not something you can acquire like an investment."
Timeline Considerations
How quickly can you obtain citizenship through each route?
Investment Timelines
- Malta: 1-3 years to citizenship
- Portugal: 5 years to citizenship eligibility
- Greece: 7+ years to citizenship (with actual residence)
- Latvia: 10+ years to citizenship (with actual residence)
Ancestry Timelines
- Ireland: 9-12 months to citizenship
- Italy: 1-4 years depending on route
- Slovakia: 6-12 months to citizenship
- Poland: 6-18 months for confirmation
Ancestry routes can be faster when documentation is readily available, though consular backlogs (especially for Italy) can extend timelines. Malta's program remains the only investment option offering citizenship in less than 5 years.
Residency Requirements
Physical presence requirements vary dramatically:
Investment Programs
- Malta: Minimal presence during 1-3 year qualification period
- Portugal: 7 days first year, 14 days each subsequent 2-year period
- Greece: None for residency, but 183+ days annually for 7 years for citizenship
- Latvia: Annual visit for residency; 4/5 years actual residence for permanent status
Ancestry Programs
- Ireland: No residency requirement
- Italy: No residency requirement (unless using the in-Italy application method)
- Slovakia: Must obtain residence permit but minimal actual stay required
- Poland: No residency requirement for confirmation process
Ancestry programs generally impose no or minimal residency requirements, while investment programs vary from Portugal's minimal days to Greece and Latvia's substantial physical presence requirements for those seeking citizenship.
Language & Integration Requirements
Investment Programs
- Malta: No language requirement for exceptional investors
- Portugal: A2 Portuguese for citizenship
- Greece: Language and culture test for citizenship
- Latvia: A2 Latvian for permanent residence; B1 for citizenship
Ancestry Programs
- Ireland: No language requirement
- Italy: No language requirement currently (though Bill 752 proposes B1 Italian)
- Slovakia: No language requirement for descent route
- Poland: No language requirement for confirmation; basic Polish for Polish Card route
Ancestry programs tend to have fewer integration requirements, reflecting the presumption of cultural connection. Investment routes to citizenship (except Malta) typically require at least basic language proficiency.
Certainty and Risk Factors
Investment Programs
- Political risk: Programs can be modified or terminated (as seen with Spain, Cyprus)
- Eligibility risk: Due diligence rejection can occur after significant expenditure
- Processing risk: Delays, policy changes during the waiting period
Ancestry Programs
- Documentation risk: Required records may be difficult to obtain or may not exist
- Interpretation risk: Authorities may interpret citizenship laws differently
- Policy risk: Rules can change during processing (as with Italy's recent cap)
Investment programs carry greater financial risk but offer more certainty for qualified applicants who meet financial thresholds. Ancestry programs involve less financial exposure but greater uncertainty around documentation and eligibility determination.
Making Your Decision
The "easiest" path varies dramatically based on your personal circumstances:
- If you have qualifying European ancestry, especially Irish grandparents or Italian/Polish/Slovak relatives within qualifying generations, the ancestry route is almost certainly easier, faster, and vastly more economical.
- If you lack European ancestry but have significant investment capacity, Portugal's Golden Visa offers perhaps the best balance of reasonable investment (from €250,000), minimal residency requirements, and a clear 5-year path to citizenship.
- If your priority is the fastest possible route to EU citizenship regardless of cost, Malta's program remains the only option delivering citizenship in 1-3 years.
- If budget constraints are paramount and you don't qualify by ancestry, Latvia's €60,000 business investment option provides the lowest-cost entry to European residency, though the path to citizenship is long.
"The best strategy is often to explore multiple options simultaneously," advises citizenship planning specialist Elena Rodriguez. "Many of my clients pursue both investment and ancestry routes in parallel, knowing that circumstances and policies can change during the process."
Your optimal strategy depends on your unique combination of ancestry, financial resources, timeline needs, willingness to relocate, and language capabilities. The landscape of European citizenship continues to evolve, with investment programs generally tightening while some ancestry programs (like Slovakia's) have recently expanded.
Conclusion: The 2025 European Citizenship Landscape
The pathways to European citizenship in 2025 reflect a continent in transition. Investment migration programs face increasing scrutiny and restrictions, while ancestry programs continue to reconnect diaspora communities with their European heritage.
As the European Commission pushes back against what it views as the commodification of EU citizenship, the relative ease of obtaining a European passport through investment has diminished. Cyprus and Bulgaria have terminated their citizenship-by-investment programs, Spain has abolished its Golden Visa, and Portugal has eliminated its popular real estate route.
Malta stands as the last EU member offering direct citizenship through investment, though at a high price point and under significant pressure from Brussels. Portugal, Greece, and Latvia continue to offer residency-by-investment programs, but with higher thresholds or narrower investment options than in previous years.
Meanwhile, citizenship by descent remains a powerful avenue for those with European ancestry. Ireland and Poland maintain their generous policies for descendants, Slovakia has recently expanded access to include great-grandparents, and Italy has moved to limit its once-unlimited generational reach.
When evaluating "ease," the calculus extends beyond eligibility to costs (ranging from a few hundred euros for ancestry claims to millions for investment programs), timelines (from under a year to a decade or more), and requirements (from simple documentation to language proficiency and physical residence).
For those fortunate enough to have European ancestry within qualifying generations, the descent route almost always represents the easiest, fastest, and most economical path. Those without such heritage face a more limited and expensive menu of options in 2025's increasingly restrictive investment landscape.
As you contemplate your European citizenship journey, remember that policies continue to evolve. The trend toward tightening investment pathways while maintaining or even expanding ancestry connections seems likely to continue. What appears straightforward today may change tomorrow, making timely action on viable options increasingly important.
Whether you're reconnecting with ancestral roots or creating new ties through investment, the goal remains the same: accessing the tremendous opportunities that European citizenship provides – from unrestricted travel and work rights across 27 nations to educational benefits and quality of life. Despite policy shifts, pathways remain open for those who understand the changing landscape and act accordingly.
The European dream remains accessible in 2025 – just through increasingly selective doorways.
