The World's Safest Countries in 2025

Iceland maintains its 17-year reign as the world's most peaceful nation while El Salvador's dramatic security transformation has created the Western Hemisphere's safest country, revealing how global safety landscapes have shifted dramatically for high-net-worth individuals seeking secure a new home.

The 2025 safety rankings show unprecedented polarization between traditional safe havens and emerging destinations, with nine countries standing out for their unique combinations of personal security, political stability, and investment protection that matter most to wealthy families considering international relocation.

These nine nations — Iceland, United Arab Emirates, New Zealand, Switzerland, El Salvador, Singapore, Malaysia, Slovenia, and Poland — represent fundamentally different approaches to safety and security. While Nordic isolation and Swiss neutrality continue delivering exceptional peace, Singapore's technocratic efficiency and the UAE's authoritarian stability offer alternative models of security. Meanwhile, El Salvador's controversial but effective anti-gang campaign has transformed a former murder capital into a surprisingly safe destination, though significant concerns about human rights and political stability remain.

The research reveals that safety for high-net-worth individuals extends far beyond crime statistics. Healthcare infrastructure, natural disaster resilience, property rights protection, and the availability of golden visa programs all factor into the complex calculus of choosing a safe second citizenship or residence. Understanding these nuances becomes critical as global instability drives record numbers of wealthy families to diversify their citizenship portfolios for security.

1. Iceland

Iceland's extraordinary safety stems from its unique combination of social cohesion, geographic isolation, and institutional excellence that has kept it atop the Global Peace Index for 17 consecutive years. With just 0.54 homicides per 100,000 people and a crime index of 25.4 — compared to the US at 49.2 — the island nation offers wealthy families an almost utopian security environment where police officers don't carry guns and violent crime remains virtually non-existent.

The country's 376,000 residents benefit from what researchers call "Nordic exceptionalism" — a social contract built on high trust, low inequality, and robust institutions. Property crimes constitute 75% of all reported offenses, mostly petty theft, while financial crime remains minimal thanks to stringent post-2008 banking reforms. The nation's 660 unarmed police officers maintain order through community engagement rather than force, reflecting a society where 97% of citizens report feeling safe walking alone at night.

For high-net-worth families, Iceland's infrastructure matches its safety credentials. The healthcare system ranks second in Europe after Norway, with universal coverage and a life expectancy of 82.6 years exceeding the EU average. Digital infrastructure remains cutting-edge, powered entirely by renewable geothermal and hydroelectric sources that ensure energy security. Private schools maintain excellent safety records, while luxury properties in Reykjavik's affluent neighborhoods face virtually zero security threats.

Natural disaster preparedness represents Iceland's primary safety consideration. The volcanic island experiences regular seismic activity, though sophisticated monitoring systems and well-rehearsed evacuation procedures minimize risks. Recent volcanic eruptions between 2021-2024 occurred in uninhabited areas, demonstrating the effectiveness of Iceland's geological surveillance. Comprehensive insurance coverage remains readily available for all natural hazards.

Despite these advantages, Iceland offers no golden visa or investment immigration programs. Wealthy individuals must pursue traditional naturalization requiring seven years of residency, making it an impractical choice for those seeking quick citizenship options. The combination of geographic isolation, harsh climate, and high living costs further limits its appeal to security-focused investors who can't commit to long-term residence.

2. United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates has engineered world-class urban safety through a combination of advanced surveillance technology, strict law enforcement, and significant investment in security infrastructure. Abu Dhabi leads global city safety rankings with an 88.4 safety index score, while Dubai follows closely at 83.8, both dramatically outperforming major Western cities through comprehensive security approaches that particularly benefit expatriate communities comprising 85% of the population.

Crime statistics validate the UAE's safety investments. With just 0.70 intentional homicides per 100,000 people, the Emirates maintains one of the world's lowest murder rates. Dubai reported a 15% crime reduction between 2018-2024, while 85% of residents feel safe walking alone at night — remarkable for a city hosting 18.72 million international visitors in 2024. This safety extends across all seven emirates, with Sharjah, Ras al-Khaimah, and Ajman all posting safety indices above 82.

The UAE's political stability, despite its authoritarian governance model, provides predictable security for business operations and investments. The country ranks 70th percentile globally for political stability, with strong succession planning ensuring institutional continuity. Property rights enjoy robust protection through comprehensive legal frameworks, while the recent removal from the FATF grey list in February 2024 confirms improvements in financial transparency. Free zones offer additional legal protections with 100% foreign ownership rights and streamlined dispute resolution.

Economic indicators reinforce the UAE's attractiveness for wealth preservation. The economy has successfully diversified beyond oil, achieving 6.7% GDP growth projections for 2025 with a 4% fiscal surplus. The dirham's USD peg provides currency stability, while Abu Dhabi's sovereign wealth fund — the world's fourth largest — demonstrates long-term financial strength. The banking sector remains well-capitalized with $1.1 trillion in assets and improving non-performing loan ratios.

The Golden Visa program offers multiple pathways for wealthy individuals, requiring just AED 2 million ($545,000) in real estate investment for a 10-year renewable residency. Benefits include family sponsorship, no minimum stay requirements, and access to world-class healthcare ranked first globally in digitization. With no personal income tax, capital gains tax, or wealth tax, the UAE provides exceptional value for high-net-worth families seeking Middle Eastern exposure.

3. New Zealand

New Zealand's consistent ranking as the Asia-Pacific's most peaceful nation reflects its stable democracy, strong institutions, and comprehensive approach to public safety that has attracted increasing numbers of American high-net-worth families. Ranking third globally on the 2025 Global Peace Index with a score of 1.287, the country combines extremely low crime rates with exceptional governance standards that protect both residents and their investments.

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Crime statistics reinforce New Zealand's safety reputation. The homicide rate of 1.327 per 100,000 places it 66th globally — comparable to other developed nations but with steady improvement trends. Overall crime has declined 47% since its 1992 peak, with violent crime particularly rare outside specific communities. Regional variations show Canterbury's Selwyn district maintaining the nation's lowest crime rates, making it attractive for family estates, while even higher-crime areas like Rotorua remain safe by international standards.

Political stability represents New Zealand's greatest strength for security-conscious investors. The country pioneered women's suffrage, maintains transparent multi-party democracy, and historically ranks as the world's least corrupt nation according to Transparency International. Business operations benefit from second-place global rankings for ease of doing business, comprehensive property rights protection under common law, and 41 double taxation agreements facilitating international wealth management.

Healthcare and emergency preparedness meet first-world standards, though private healthcare options remain more limited than Singapore or Switzerland. The public system demonstrated exceptional pandemic management, while emergency services maintain comprehensive disaster response capabilities. Natural disaster risks center on moderate earthquake exposure, though the country's geographic isolation provides a valuable security buffer against regional conflicts or mass migration events.

The newly reformed Active Investor Plus visa has transformed New Zealand's appeal for wealthy immigrants. Following 2025 changes, the program now requires just NZ$5 million investment over three years with only 21 days annual residency — down from previous multi-year requirements. The removal of English language requirements and streamlined processing has driven a 63% increase in applications, with 45% coming from Americans seeking stable alternatives to domestic uncertainty.

4. Switzerland

Switzerland's legendary stability continues attracting high-net-worth individuals through an unmatched combination of political neutrality, banking secrecy traditions, and infrastructure excellence that justifies its position as the world's premier wealth management center. Ranking fifth globally on the Peace Index with multiple cities in the top tier of safety rankings, Switzerland offers security-conscious families proven resilience through centuries of European conflicts.

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Swiss crime rates remain consistently low despite slight increases in petty offenses. The Security Threats Index improved to 1.1 in 2024 from 1.4 in 2023, while serious violent crime remains extremely rare. Zurich's safety index of 76.7 and Bern's 78.4 compare favorably to any global city, though property crime in tourist areas requires basic precautions. The country maintains the world's highest anti-corruption score at 81/100, ensuring transparent governance and reliable rule of law.

Economic security represents Switzerland's core value proposition. Ranked second globally for economic freedom with an 83.5 score, the country offers the world's most sophisticated banking system protecting $3.5 trillion in international assets. The Swiss franc's safe-haven status provides unmatched currency stability during global crises, while the nation's permanent neutrality shields wealth from geopolitical risks. No capital gains tax and competitive wealth management services complete the financial security package.

Infrastructure quality matches Switzerland's reputation for excellence. The healthcare system ranks in the global top 10 with world-class private options available throughout the country. Transportation infrastructure maintains exceptional safety records, while digital systems incorporate advanced cybersecurity protections. Natural disaster risks remain minimal — earthquake exposure exists in certain regions but comprehensive building codes and insurance coverage mitigate concerns.

For wealthy residents, Switzerland offers the lump-sum taxation program rather than traditional golden visas. This arrangement requires negotiated annual tax payments typically between CHF 250,000 and CHF 1 million depending on the canton, with residence available in 21 of 26 cantons excluding Zurich and Basel. Residents cannot work in Switzerland but can manage global investments while enjoying Schengen Area access and potential citizenship after 10 years of residence.

5. El Salvador

El Salvador has achieved the Western Hemisphere's most dramatic security transformation, reducing its homicide rate by 98% from 106.3 per 100,000 in 2015 to just 1.9 in 2024, though this remarkable achievement comes with significant concerns about human rights and democratic governance. The country recorded just 114 homicides in 2024 — fewer than one per day — making it statistically safer than Canada, the United States, and most Latin American nations.

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This transformation resulted from President Nayib Bukele's controversial state of emergency declared in March 2022, which has led to the arrest of over 83,000 suspected gang members and given El Salvador the world's highest incarceration rate. While human rights organizations condemn mass arbitrary detentions and suspension of civil liberties, the elimination of gang extortion has restored business confidence and enabled safe travel throughout the country during daylight hours.

Political stability remains El Salvador's primary concern for investors. Despite 91% presidential approval ratings, Bukele's illegal re-election, court packing, and legislative control by his party have weakened democratic institutions. The country maintains CAFTA-DR membership providing strong protections for US investors, including international arbitration rights, though judicial independence faces serious questions that could affect contract enforcement and property rights.

Economic challenges temper El Salvador's security achievements. Government debt between 81-88% of GDP led to a $1.4 billion IMF agreement requiring fiscal reforms and limiting Bitcoin involvement. Despite official adoption as legal tender, only 12% of Salvadorans actually use Bitcoin, undermining the cryptocurrency hub vision. However, foreign direct investment reached $759.7 million in 2023 — quadruple 2022 levels — while tourism grew 35% as visitors discover the country's newfound safety.

The Freedom Visa program launched in December 2023 offers a unique Bitcoin-based citizenship pathway, requiring a $1 million donation in cryptocurrency. Limited to 1,000 applicants annually with six-week processing times, the program provides expedited citizenship bypassing normal five-year residency requirements. While innovative, the high cost and political risks make it suitable only for risk-tolerant investors seeking Latin American diversification rather than primary safe haven residence.

6. Singapore

Singapore has engineered near-perfect urban safety through technocratic governance, advanced surveillance systems, and comprehensive social policies that make it the preferred Asian destination for high-net-worth families. Rising to sixth globally on the 2025 Global Peace Index — entering the top five for the first time — while ranking second worldwide for law and order, Singapore offers unmatched stability in an increasingly volatile region.

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Crime rates in Singapore remain extraordinarily low at 1,188 incidents per 100,000 people, with violent crime virtually eliminated through strict enforcement and social programs. The city-state achieves a 97% positive rating for general safety and security, with residents and visitors alike experiencing freedom from crime unmatched in major global cities. While cybercrime presents growing challenges, sophisticated enforcement mechanisms and public education campaigns maintain control.

Political stability under single-party rule since independence provides predictable governance that prioritizes economic development and social order. Despite ranking 158th for press freedom, Singapore maintains exceptional government effectiveness, ranking first globally for ease of doing business. The legal system, based on English common law, offers reliable contract enforcement and property rights protection that attracts international arbitration cases and wealth management operations.

Economic fundamentals justify Singapore's premium pricing for residents. With GDP per capita of $82,794 — Asia's highest — supported by world-class financial regulations, the city-state hosts over 700 single-family offices as of 2023, up from 400 in 2022. The strong Singapore dollar, managed float system, and favorable tax regime including no capital gains tax and territorial taxation create optimal conditions for wealth preservation and growth.

Healthcare represents Singapore's standout advantage, ranking first globally across multiple indices with cutting-edge private facilities and medical technology. The country faces zero natural disaster risk — no earthquakes, typhoons, or volcanic activity — while maintaining sophisticated emergency response systems. World-class international schools, luxury residential options in Marina Bay and Orchard Road, and excellent global connectivity complete the premium lifestyle package.

The Global Investor Program requires substantial commitments — SGD 10 million business investment, SGD 25 million in approved funds, or SGD 200 million for family offices — making it the world's most expensive investment immigration option. However, direct permanent residency, potential citizenship after two years, and access to Asia's most dynamic economy justify the premium for ultra-high-net-worth families seeking uncompromised Asian security.

7. Malaysia

Malaysia presents a mixed security profile for high-net-worth individuals, offering competitive costs and improving investment climates against higher crime rates and political uncertainties that require careful consideration. Ranking 50.71 percentile for political stability, the country provides emerging opportunities for risk-tolerant investors while working to address security and infrastructure gaps compared to regional leaders Singapore and Thailand.

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Crime statistics reveal Malaysia's security challenges. The crime index increased 3.2% in 2023 to 52,444 cases, with concerning rises in violent crime including 7.5% more murders and 11.8% more rapes. Commercial crime surged 32.1% to 40,350 cases, while corruption cases increased 25.1%, indicating systemic challenges despite enforcement efforts. Petaling Jaya and Johor Bahru record the highest crime rates, though Penang maintains better safety with a 69.7 safety index comparable to some European cities.

Political stability faces ongoing tests with governance transitions and moderate corruption levels scoring 47/100 on Transparency International's index. While the English common law legal system provides familiar frameworks for international investors, enforcement inconsistencies and bureaucratic challenges rated 95th globally for ease of doing business create operational uncertainties. The government's efforts to attract family offices through new incentive programs signal positive intentions requiring execution excellence.

Economic opportunities partially offset security concerns. The Forest City Special Economic Zone offers 0-5% corporate tax rates for qualifying businesses, while a new single-family office scheme launching in Q1 2025 promises 0% tax rates for wealth management operations. Strategic location provides access to Southeast Asian markets, though ringgit volatility during regional crises requires hedging strategies. Banking sector liberalization in special zones attracts international institutions improving financial services.

Healthcare and infrastructure lag regional standards but show improvement. Private healthcare partnerships with international providers expand options for wealthy residents, while national electronic medical record systems modernize service delivery. However, high flood risk affecting both river and coastal areas, combined with significant climate change vulnerability, requires comprehensive insurance coverage and residence location planning.

The Malaysia My Second Home (MM2H) program offers three tiers starting at just USD 150,000 fixed deposits for 10-year renewable visas, making it the region's most accessible program. Requirements include property purchases from MYR 600,000 and 90-day annual minimum stays. While no direct citizenship path exists, the program provides affordable Asian residency for those accepting higher risk profiles than Singapore or more distant options like New Zealand.

8. Slovenia

Slovenia distinguishes itself as the only Central and Eastern European country ranking in the global top 10 for peace, achieving eighth place on the Global Peace Index through successful EU integration, low crime rates, and stable democratic governance. For high-net-worth individuals seeking European Union benefits without Western European prices, Slovenia offers compelling safety credentials with developing wealth management infrastructure.

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Crime remains remarkably controlled despite recent increases. The murder rate of 0.52 per 100,000 ranks among Europe's lowest, while total crimes of 54,017 in 2024 — though up 10% from 2022 — remain manageable for the nation's 2.1 million residents. Violent crime stays rare with just 72 rape cases recording a 93% clearance rate, demonstrating effective law enforcement. While organized crime increased 18% and juvenile crime rose 26%, both started from very low bases that maintain Slovenia's position as one of Europe's safest countries.

Political stability benefits from full EU integration since 2004, providing institutional frameworks and oversight that ensure democratic governance and rule of law. Property rights enjoy complete EU-level protection, while eurozone membership eliminates currency risk for European wealth preservation. The parliamentary system maintains stability with transparent processes and minimal corruption meeting EU standards, creating predictable business environments for international investors.

Economic integration delivers solid fundamentals for wealth security. Full access to EU single market benefits, euro currency stability, and EU-regulated banking systems provide familiar frameworks for Western investors. While less developed than Switzerland or Luxembourg for wealth management, growing high-net-worth service sectors recognize opportunities in Slovenia's combination of safety, EU membership, and competitive costs compared to Western Europe.

Infrastructure meets European standards across healthcare, digital systems, and transportation networks. EU membership ensures baseline quality requirements while structural funds support continuous improvements. Emergency services operate effectively with EU-standard training and equipment. Natural disaster risks center on moderate earthquake exposure common to the region, with flood risks managed through EU-supported infrastructure investments and comprehensive insurance availability.

Currently no golden visa program exists, though proposals under consideration would require EUR 1 million minimum investments. Traditional business immigration remains available through EUR 50,000-100,000 company formations leading to renewable residency, permanent residence after five years, and potential citizenship after 10 years total. The prohibition on dual citizenship except in limited circumstances may deter some investors, though EU membership provides substantial mobility benefits compensating for this restriction.

9. Poland

Poland has emerged as an unexpectedly safe destination for high-net-worth individuals, with 89% of residents considering the country safe and achieving sixth place globally in MIT's Cyber Defense Index. While not reaching Nordic safety levels, Poland offers compelling combinations of EU membership benefits, NATO security guarantees, and dynamic economic growth that projects a 117% increase in high-net-worth individuals by 2026.

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Security metrics validate Poland's improving reputation. The Security Threats Index of 1.8 compares favorably to the world average of 4.98, while cybersecurity leadership provides critical protection for digital assets and business operations. Major cities like Krakow (74.6 safety index) and Warsaw (74.5) approach Western European safety levels, with effective law enforcement maintaining order through professional police services rather than military presence.

Political frameworks provide institutional stability through EU membership ensuring democratic governance, rule of law, and property rights protection. NATO membership adds military security guarantees particularly relevant given regional geopolitical tensions. While domestic politics occasionally create uncertainty, EU oversight and constitutional frameworks maintain investment security and predictable business environments supporting the projected HNWI population boom.

Economic dynamism distinguishes Poland within Europe. Strong GDP growth supported by EU structural funds, modernizing financial systems, and improving infrastructure create wealth-building opportunities alongside preservation. The security services market alone projects reaching $87.1 million by 2028, indicating growing demand for HNWI-focused services. Banking sector EU regulation ensures deposit protection while increasing competition improves service quality.

Infrastructure modernization accelerates through EU investment programs. Healthcare systems improve toward EU standards while maintaining cost advantages, digital infrastructure supports advanced cybersecurity capabilities, and transportation networks integrate with European systems. Natural disaster risks remain low with minimal earthquake exposure and manageable flood risks addressed through EU-standard mitigation infrastructure.

Despite attractive fundamentals, Poland offers no golden visa or investment citizenship programs. Business immigration requires modest EUR 15,000 company investments generating income within one year, leading to three-year renewable temporary residency, permanent residency after five years, and potential citizenship maintaining dual nationality rights. While less streamlined than dedicated investment programs, EU membership benefits and lower entry costs attract entrepreneurs accepting longer timelines.

Citizenship programs reveal strategic differentiation

The availability and structure of investment immigration programs across these nine countries reveals strategic choices about attracting high-net-worth residents. Singapore's SGD 10-25 million requirements target only ultra-high-net-worth families, while New Zealand's recent reforms reducing residency requirements to just 21 days signal aggressive competition for mobile wealth. The complete absence of programs in Iceland and Poland suggests confidence in organic attractiveness or political resistance to commodifying residence rights.

Program innovations reflect changing HNWI priorities and competitive dynamics. El Salvador's Bitcoin-denominated Freedom Visa pioneers cryptocurrency integration despite limited practical adoption. The UAE's expansion to digital creators and entrepreneurs recognizes new wealth creation patterns. Malaysia's three-tier system provides accessibility ladders from USD 150,000 entry points to premium options. These variations enable precise matching between investor profiles and destination characteristics.

Successful programs balance accessibility with security, recognizing that high-net-worth individuals prioritize predictability and protection over purely financial terms. New Zealand's 63% application increase following simplification demonstrates pent-up demand for stable destinations, with 45% of applicants being Americans seeking alternatives to domestic uncertainty. This trend toward quality destinations willing to reduce bureaucratic friction while maintaining security standards will likely accelerate.

The absence of programs in highly safe countries like Iceland creates opportunities for competitors. Slovenia's consideration of a EUR 1 million program recognizes this gap, potentially offering EU access with higher safety ratings than existing options like Portugal or Greece. However, the failure to launch suggests political complexities around immigration that pure safety statistics don't capture.

Looking forward, the polarization between ultra-premium programs (Singapore, Switzerland) and accessible alternatives (Malaysia, UAE) will likely continue, with middle-market options under pressure to differentiate. Safety rankings provide necessary but insufficient conditions for program success — execution quality, processing efficiency, and post-arrival support increasingly determine program reputations among the globally mobile wealthy.

Safety extends beyond crime statistics for wealth preservation

The research reveals that safety for high-net-worth individuals encompasses far more than low crime rates. Singapore's first-place healthcare ranking matters more for aging wealth holders than marginal differences in theft statistics. Switzerland's banking secrecy traditions and proven resilience through world wars provide security that newer destinations cannot match despite higher safety indices. Natural disaster immunity in Singapore and the UAE eliminates risks that even the safest countries like New Zealand cannot avoid.

Political predictability often trumps democratic credentials for wealth preservation. The UAE and Singapore demonstrate that authoritarian stability can deliver superior outcomes for residents prioritizing security over political participation. Conversely, El Salvador shows that dramatic security improvements under questionable governance create new uncertainties that safety statistics don't capture. The distinction between resident safety and systemic stability becomes critical for long-term planning.

Economic security increasingly drives destination selection as global uncertainties multiply. Switzerland's negative interest rates on large deposits paradoxically increase its attractiveness by signaling supreme stability. Singapore's prohibition on capital gains taxes and territorial system optimize wealth accumulation. The UAE's zero personal tax regime maximizes current income. These structural advantages compound over time, potentially offsetting higher crime rates in growth markets like Malaysia.

Infrastructure quality determines livability beyond security needs. Iceland's renewable energy independence, Singapore's digital government services, and Switzerland's transportation networks enhance daily life while providing crisis resilience. Healthcare system quality varies dramatically — Singapore's global leadership contrasts sharply with El Salvador's bottom-ranking system. These practical considerations often prove decisive when families commit to international relocation.

Cultural factors and social acceptance complete the safety equation. New Zealand's English-speaking environment and cultural familiarity attract American families despite geographic isolation. The UAE's expatriate-majority population ensures international residents feel welcomed rather than merely tolerated. Singapore's pragmatic multiculturalism accommodates diverse backgrounds within strict behavioral boundaries. Understanding these softer safety factors prevents expensive mistakes in destination selection.

Future safety landscapes demand flexible strategies

The 2025 safety landscape demonstrates unprecedented volatility in global security rankings, suggesting high-net-worth families must adopt increasingly sophisticated approaches to international diversification. Traditional safe havens maintain advantages through institutional depth and proven resilience, while emerging destinations offer compelling value propositions for specific investor profiles. The key insight remains that no single destination provides complete security — portfolio approaches spreading risk across multiple residencies and citizenships become essential.

Technological disruption will reshape safety considerations as digital assets grow in importance. Singapore and Switzerland lead in cybersecurity infrastructure, while Estonia and Malta pioneer digital residency programs not covered in this analysis. Physical safety may matter less than digital security for wealth increasingly held in cryptocurrencies and digital assets. Countries investing in blockchain expertise and cryptocurrency frameworks gain competitive advantages attracting technologically sophisticated wealth.

Climate change introduces new safety variables favoring adaptable destinations. Singapore's tropical location with unlimited desalination capacity provides water security. Iceland's renewable energy abundance ensures long-term sustainability. New Zealand's agricultural self-sufficiency offers food security. These factors gain importance as resource scarcity drives future conflicts. Traditional safety metrics require updating to incorporate climate resilience and resource security.

Demographic transitions affect long-term safety outlooks. Countries with aging populations and strong institutions like Singapore and Switzerland face labor shortages but maintain stability. Younger populations in Malaysia and El Salvador provide dynamism but potential instability. Immigration policies balancing demographic needs with security concerns become critical. The most successful destinations will manage demographic transitions while maintaining social cohesion.

The optimal strategy for high-net-worth families involves matching specific needs with destination strengths while maintaining flexibility through multiple options. Singapore excels for Asian business exposure with family offices. Switzerland provides unmatched wealth preservation for conservative investors. New Zealand offers English-speaking stability for American families. The UAE delivers tax optimization with Middle Eastern growth exposure. Each serves distinct purposes within comprehensive security strategies adapting to evolving global risks.